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1. s29 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE)
2. Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) Code C (revised): Code of Practice for the detention, treatment and questioning of persons by police officers, Home Office, published 20 August 2019, last updated 4 November 2020, https://bit.ly/3HMoTJH
3. Concordat on children in custody: preventing the detention of children in police stations following charge, Home Office, published October 2017, last updated 16 January 2020, https://bit.ly/3l0GiEC, p3
4. Research by Just for Kids Law found that 1,209 children were detained overnight (4 hours or more between midnight and 8am) post-charge by the Metropolitan Police Service in 2019
5. s37(3) PACE as amended by s54(6) Policing and Crime Act 2017
6. s40(3) PACE
7. ss41–44 PACE
8. National Police Chiefs’ Council, April 2015, https://bit.ly/31ZV2Kg
9. National strategy for the policing of children and young people, p8, https://bit.ly/31ZV2Kg
10. College of Policing, Authorised Professional Practice (APP), ‘Detention and custody / Detainee care / Children and young persons’, Section 2 ‘Arrest and detention of children and young persons’, https://bit.ly/3cKHmb2
11. s38(1)(a)(i) PACE
12. s38(1)(a)(ii) PACE
13. s38(1)(a)(vi) PACE
14. s38(1)(a)(iv) PACE
15. s38(1)(a)(v) PACE
16. s38(1)(b)(ii) PACE
17. s38(3) PACE
18.a. b. Concordat on children in custody p12
19. s38(6A) PACE
20. s38(6)(a) and (7) PACE
21. R (M) v Gateshead Council [2006] EWCA Civ 221, para 41
22. R (M) v Gateshead Council [2006] EWCA Civ 221, para 43
23. R (M) v Gateshead Council [2006] EWCA Civ 221, para 23
24. Concordat on children in custody p14
25. s39(4) PACE
26. s46 PACE
27. https://bit.ly/32J7tO7
28. https://bit.ly/3nIjriQ
29. https://bit.ly/3l0GiEC
30. https://bit.ly/31ZV2Kg
31. https://bit.ly/3cKHmb2
32. https://bit.ly/3DNSOi9
33. https://bit.ly/3DFPm9j
34. s3(1) Mental Capacity Act 2005 states: ‘a person is unable to make a decision for himself if he is unable– (a) to understand the information relevant to the decision,(b) to retain that information,(c) to use or weigh that information as part of the process of making the decision, or (d) to communicate his decision (whether by talking, using sign language or any other means).’
35. Minimum ages of criminal responsibility in Europe, Child Rights International Network (CRIN), bit.ly/3iwZp81
36. ‘Scientific developments in child and adolescent brain development, policy and the law’, S Lambe, International Association of Youth and Family Judges and Magistrates Chronicle, July 2018; ‘Should the science of adolescent brain development inform public policy?’, L Steinberg, Issues in Science and Technology, Vol XXVIII, No 3, Spring 2012, bit.ly/3AlKTGs
37. See Nobody made the connection, Children’s Commissioner, 2012, bit.ly/3A6bMOn
38. Judicial College, February 2021, bit.ly/2ZOD3IB
39. ETBB p4 para 4
40. ‘Effective communication underlies the entire legal process: ensuring that everyone involved understands and is understood. Otherwise the legal process will be impeded or derailed’: ETBB p6 para 8
41. ETBB p5 para 4
42. ETBB ch 2
43. ETBB ch 2 p50 para 12
44. ETBB ch 2 p56 para 41; Criminal Procedure Rules (CrimPR) 2020 SI 2020/759 (as amended) 3.8(3)(b)
45. ETBB ch 2 p50 para 7
46. Unfitness to plead (Law Com No 364): Vol 1, Law Commission, 12 January 2016, bit. ly/2YfqJjO, para 1.101
47. Unfitness to plead para 1.101
48. The parties are under a duty to alert the court to any ‘potential impediment to the defendant’s effective participation in the trial’: CrimPR 3.3(2) (f), inserted by Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Rules 2021 SI 2021/40
49. ‘Every court in dealing with a child or young person who is brought before it, either as an offender or otherwise, shall have regard to the welfare of the child or young person’: s44(1) Children and Young Persons Act (CYPA) 1933; see also CrimPD 3D.2
50. See, in particular, CrimPD 3G ‘Vulnerable defendants’; for more details, see Youth Justice Legal Centre’s (YJLC’s) Legal Guide, Criminal Practice Directions: bit.ly/3a1FIkj
51.a. b. SC v UK [2004] ECHR 263
52. ETBB ch 4 p133 para 116
53.a. b. [2004] ECHR 263
54.a. b. [2005] EWHC 2583 (Admin)
55. [2005] EWHC 2583 (Admin) para 26
56. See CrimPD 3D–3N and 3P
57. s44(1) CYPA 1933
58. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 3(1): ‘In all actions concerning children ... by ... courts of law … the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration’
59. [1994] ECHR 6
60. [1994] ECHR 6 para 26
61. [1999] ECHR 171
62. Who in fact had the functional age of an 8- or 9-year-old
63. [1999] ECHR 171 para 86
64. [1999] ECHR 171 para 87
65. [2004] ECHR 263 para 29
66. [2004] ECHR 263 para 35
67. Available at: bit.ly/3x0Jl3p
68. [2000] 1 WLR 659 para 1
69. CrimPD 1A.3: ‘Participants must comply with the Rules and Practice Direction, and directions made by the court, and so it is the responsibility of the courts and those who participate in cases to be familiar with, and to ensure that these provisions are complied with’
70. CrimPR 3.3(2)(f)
71. CrimPD 3D.2; CrimPR 3.8(3)(a), (b)
72. s44 CYPA 1933
73.a. b. CrimPD 3D.2
74. CrimPD 3F.24: ‘Communication needs … are common to many witnesses and defendants under 18. Consideration should therefore be given to the communication needs of all children and young people appearing in the criminal courts and to adapting the trial process to address any such needs’
75. Amended on 5 April 2021, by SI 2021/40
76. CrimPR 18.27(1)(a)(i)
77. Available at: bit. ly/3uKsv8T. See also the YJLC Legal Guide Criminal Practice Directions, bit. ly/3a1FIkj, pp8–10
78. R v Walls [2011] EWCA Crim 443 para 37
79. R (C) v Sevenoaks Youth Court [2009] EWHC 3088 (Admin); R (D) v Camberwell Youth Court [2005] UKLH 4. See also CrimPD 3F.12, 3F.13, 3F.16
80. See YJLC Legal Guide Intermediaries for child defendants p5
81.a. b. See YJLC toolkit on instructing an expert
82. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
83. Autism spectrum disorder
84. Post-traumatic stress disorder
85. See CrimPD 3E; YJLC Legal Guide Criminal Practice Directions; and YJLC Legal Guide Intermediaries for child defendants
86. V v UK[1999] ECHR 171; SC v UK [2004] ECHR 263
87. R (P) v West London Youth Court [2005] EWHC 2583 (Admin)
88. Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964: see further below
89. CPS v P [2007] EWHC 946 Admin
90. R (TP) v West London Youth Court [2005] EWHC 2583 (Admin), para 14
91. P v Barking Youth Court [2002] EWHC 734 (Admin). See also R (Varma) v Redbridge Magistrates’ Court [2009] EWHC 836 (Admin), para 10
92. Unfitness to plead paras 1.92 and 1.95
93. s37(1) MHA 1983 provides the power of the court to order admission to hospital
94. This means that there is no statutory function by which the youth court can address participation difficulties arising in a case concerning nonimprisonable offences, where trial adjustments are not sufficient
95. s37(2) MHA 1983: The conditions referred to in subsection (1) above are that ‘(a) the court is satisfied, on the written or oral evidence of two registered medical practitioners, that the offender is suffering from mental disorder and that either (i) the mental disorder from which the offender is suffering is of a nature or degree which makes it appropriate for him to be detained in a hospital for medical treatment and appropriate medical treatment is available for him …’
96. s41 MHA 1983
97. s37(1) MHA 1983
98. See s37(2)(a)(ii) MHA 1983
99. As amended by the Criminal Procedure (Insanity and Unfitness to Plead) Act 1991 and the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004
100. (1836) 7 C&P 303
101. [2003] EWCA Crim 2452
102. R v M (John) [2003] EWCA Crim 3452. This last criteria was added later as in 1836, when the original Pritchard test came into being, a defendant did not have a right to give evidence on their own behalf. Note that M (John) was decided before the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004, which introduced judgeonly determinations of the defendant’s unfitness under s4 CPIA 1964
103. R v Podola [1960] 1QB 325 para 350
104. R v Robertson [1968] 1 WLR 1767 para 695
105. ss4, 4A CPIA 1964 (as amended by the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004)
106. s4(5) CPIA 1964
107. s4(6) CPIA 1964
108. R v Walls [2011] EWCA Crim 443 para 38
109. s4(2) CPIA 1964
110. s4A(3) CPIA 1964
111. s4A CPIA 1964
112. R v Norman [2008] EWCA Crim 1810 para 34
113. See: bit.ly/3DcXxcn
114. s35(2)(a) and (3) MHA 1983
115. s35(7) MHA 1983
116. s36(2) MHA 1983
117. s36(6) MHA 1983
118. s5(2)(a) CPIA 1964; ss37 and 41 MHA 1983
119. s5(2)(b) and Sch 1A Part 1 CPIA 1964
120. Sch 1A CPIA 1964
121. s5(2)(c) CPIA 1964
122. s12 PCCSA 2000
123. Herman, ‘Justice from the victim’s perspective’, June 2005, Violence Against Women 11(5):571-602
124. Van Velsen, GorstUnsworth & Turner, ‘Survivors of Torture and organized violence: Demography and diagnosis’, Journal of Traumatic Stress’ 1996
125. Herlihy & Turner, ‘Untested assumptions: psychological research and credibility assessment in legal decision-making’, European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2015
126. ‘Understanding traumatic stress in adolescents: a primer for substance abuse professionals’, National Child Traumatic Stress Network, 2008, https://bit.ly/3wDbEp4
127. Martin, Woodhouse & Burke, ‘Being traumainformed – in practice’, Journal of The Law Society of Scotland, October 2019
128. ‘Establishing a traumainformed lawyer-client relationship’, American Bar Association, 2014, https://bit.ly/3myWk88
129. ‘SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach’, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4884, 2014, https://bit.ly/3wFcTnG
130. https://bit.ly/3muYzJV
131. Feierman & Fine, ‘Trauma and resilience’, Juvenile Law Center, May 2014, https://bit.ly/3d4LZhr
132. Children Act 1989, section 20
133. Lammy Review, 2017, https://bit.ly/3t9KhRy
134. A child client must be able to effectively participate to make their trial compliant with Article 6(1) of the ECHR – see V v UK [1999] ECHR 171
135. Given-Wilson, Herlihy & Hodes, ‘Telling the story: a psychological review on assessing adolescents’ asylum claims’, Canadian Psychology, 2016; Spinhoven, Bean, & Eurelings-Bontekoe, ‘Course and predictors of mental health of unaccompanied refugee minors in the Netherlands: one year follow-up’, Social Science & Medicine, Volume 64, Issue 6, March 2007
136. Habermas & de Silveira, ‘The development of global coherence in life narratives across adolescence: Temporal, causal, and thematic aspects’ Developmental Psychology 44(3) 707-721,2008
137. de Decker et al, ‘Autobiographical memory specificity and affect regulation: an experimental approach’, American Psychological Association, 2003
138. R v D [2008] EWCA Crim 2557
139. The Advocate’s Gateway, Toolkit 18: ‘Working with traumatised witnesses, defendants and parties’, https://bit.ly/3s7orwu
140. CrimPD 3P.15
141. ‘Submitting a CRM4’, eForms Quick Guide, LAA, available at: https://bit.ly/3uuIjLA
142. CrimPD 2015 Amendment No 7 [2018] EWCA Crim 1760
143. Ministry of Justice, prepared for: Her Majesty’s Court Service, September 2010
144. Youth court, magistrates’ court and Crown Court
145. This includes child defendants, child witnesses and child victims
146. s44(1) Children and Young Person Act 1933
147. s11(1) Children Act (CA) 2004; and s55 Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 imposes a similar duty on the Home Office in the exercise of its functions including identifying victims of trafficking
148. s11(1)(a)–(b) CA 2004
149. s11(1)(h)–(i) CA 2004
150. s11(1)(k) CA 2004
151. s11(1)(l) CA 2004
152. ‘Child centred policing: National strategy for the policing of children and young people’, National Police Chiefs’ Council, 2015, https://bit.ly/31ZV2Kg
153. Childs, Given-Wilson, Butler, Memon & Gudjonsson, ‘Vulnerability to interrogative suggestibility from negative life events. A comparison of separated asylum-seeking youth and age-matched peers’, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol 173, 2021
154. Childs, Given-Wilson, Butler, Memon & Gudjonsson, 2021 (above)
155. PD v Merseyside Police [2015] EWCA Civ 114 para 44
156. The HM Inspectorate of Constabulary report ‘The welfare of vulnerable people in police custody’ (March 2015) found that whilst strip searches were mostly undertaken appropriately, some detainees felt strongly that strip searches were not only ‘undignified and degrading’, but that they were not always justifiable (p19, https://bit.ly/39YmSe3)
157. ‘Detainee care’, para5.1 Clothing
158. para4.14(d) Code for Crown Prosecutors 2018, Full Code Test, https://bit.ly/2OwSpfC
159. C v Sevenoaks Youth Court [2009] EWHC 3088 (Admin) para17
160. s33A YJCEA 1999; R (S) v Waltham Forest Youth Court & others [2004] EWHC 715 (Admin)
161. s109(1) Coroners and Justice Act 2003; C v Sevenoaks Youth Court [2009] EWHC 3088 (Admin); R (OP) v Secretary of State for Justice & others [2014] EWHC 1944 (Admin)
162. In R v Grant-Murray [2017] EWCA Crim 1228 the Court of Appeal confirmed ‘if confirmation is needed, that the principles in [R v Lubemba [2014] EWCA Crim 2064 (in which the court highlighted best practice for vulnerable witnesses)] apply to child defendants as witnesses in the same way as they apply to any other vulnerable witness’ (para226)
163. CrimPD 3E.3
164. Equal Treatment Bench Book, 2021, Chapter 2, https://bit.ly/2Q9yUu2
165. https://bit.ly/3tbXI3j
166. https://bit.ly/3s7orwu
167. https://bit.ly/3rXzp7K
168. [2017] EWCA Crim 1228 para226
169. [2014] EWCA Crim 2064
170. ‘Adverse inferences’, CPS legal guidance, updated August 2018, https://bit.ly/3d2qXQt
171. T v DPP [2007] EWHC 1793 (Admin)
172. R v Howell [2003] EWCA Crim 1; R v D [2013] EWCA Crim 465
173. https://bit.ly/31WP5xl
174. Updated March 2021, https://bit.ly/3t5yYcP
175. Press and Thompson v R [2013] EWCA Crim 1849
176. R v Canns [2005] EWCA Crim 2264
177. R v Bowen [1996] 2 Cr App R 157, CA
178. For loss of control, see R v Holley [2005] 2AC 580
179. ‘Trauma-informed legal advocacy: a resource for juvenile defense attorneys’, National Child Traumatic Stress Network, 2018, https://bit.ly/3s5o59H
180. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p23
181. ‘SCYJ guide to the new anti-social behaviour powers’, Standing Committee for Youth Justice, February 2015, p12, https://bit.ly/3snZRc6 & ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Antisocial behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, August 2019, p29, https://bit.ly/3nIrZ63 pp17–19
182. s22(1) ASBCPA 2014
183. Part 1 ASBCPA 2014 sets out the relevant statutory provisions relating to ASBIs
184. Part 4 Policing & Crime Act (PCA) 2009 sets out the statutory provisions relating to Anti-Gang Injunctions
185. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020, ‘File review’, http://bit.ly/2LOHlZN
186. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020, ‘File review’
187. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020
188. s22(8) ABCPA 2014
189. See, for example, ‘Standards for children in the youth justice system 2019’, Youth Justice Board, 2019, p2, http://bit.ly/38Kjzak
190. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020; ‘Criminal Behaviour Order – process to find out the view of the local youth offending team’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors https://bit.ly/2YetYoG
191. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020; ‘Criminal Behaviour Order – process to find out the view of the local youth offending team’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors
192. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p37’
193. Examples given include: schools and colleges of further education; providers of probation services; social services; mental health services; housing providers or others
194. ‘YOT Practitioner’s Guide: civil injunctions and the Criminal Behaviour Order’, Youth Justice Board, 2015, p15
195. This table is extracted from the statutory guidance, see ‘YOT Practitioner’s Guide: civil injunctions and the Criminal Behaviour Order’, Youth Justice Board, 2015, p15
196.a. b. c. R v Khan [2018] EWCA Crim 1472 para 20
197. R v Khan [2018] EWCA Crim 1472 para 18, referring to ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p36
198. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p4
199. R (W) v DPP 169 JP 435 DC
200. s22(7) ASBCPA 2014
201. s22(3) ASBCPA 2014
202. s22(4) ASBCPA 2014
203. CrimPR 31.3(3)
204. CrimPR 31.3(4)
205. CrimPR 31.8
206.a. b. CrimPR 31.7
207. CrimPR 31.3(4) & 31.6
208. s23(3) ASBCPA 2014 & provided the notice of application was served in accordance with CrimPr 31.2
209. R v Khan [2018] EWCA Crim 1472
210. s26 ASBCPA 2014
211. s26(2) ASBCPA 2014
212. s26(3) ASBCPA 2014
213. s23(4) ASBCPA 2014
214. s23(5) & (6) ASBCPA 2014
215. M v DPP [2007] EWHC 1032 (Admin); R v Khan [2018] EWCA Crim 1472, para 13
216. R v Asfi [2016] EWCA Crim 1236
217. R v Lima [2010] EWCA Crim 284
218. R (W) v Acton Youth Court [2005] EWHC 954 (Admin)
219. s23(2) ASBCPA 2014
220. s33(5) ASBCPA 2014
221. s22(5)(a)–(b) ASBCPA 2014
222. s22(4) & (5) ASBCPA 2014
223.a. b. s22(9) ASBCPA 2014
224. ‘YOT Practitioner’s Guide: civil injunctions and the Criminal Behaviour Order’, Youth Justice Board, 2015, pp9–10
225. DPP v Bulmer [2015] EWHC 2323 (Admin), para 46; R v Janes [2016] EWCA 676, para 18; also: R v Boness [2005] EWCA Crim 2395, para 38
226. R v Boness [2005] EWCA 2395, paras 19–23; also R v Khan [2018] EWCA Crim 1472, para 14
227. See: R v Simsek [2015] EWCA Crim 1268, para 18; & ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p4
228.a. b. DPP v Bulmer [2015] EWHC 2323 (Admin), para 23
229. s24(2) ASBCPA 2014
230. ss24(4)) ASBCPA 2014
231. s30(5) ASBCPA 2014. Note that reporting restrictions continue to apply to the offence the child has been convicted of
232. Youth court, magistrates’ court & Crown Court
233. s39 Children and Young Persons Act 1933
234. R (T) v St Albans Crown Court [2002] EWHC 1129 (Admin)
235. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021, p40
236. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, January 2021, p40
237. ‘Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014: Anti-social behaviour powers; Statutory guidance for frontline professionals’, Home Office, January 2021
238. s27(1) ASBCPA 2014
239. s27(4) ASBCPA 2014
240. These circumstances would be analogous to the circumstances for variation or discharge of an ASBO under the old regime, when the court could consider ‘that he has mended his ways, left the area, got a proper job or any other considerations which may lead the magistrate to think that the prohibition on him can now be lifted’. See: ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020, ‘Variation or discharge of an order (s27)
241. s142 Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980 cannot be used to correct errors in CBOs, as it is only available to criminal proceedings. In the Crown Court, any errors can be corrected via the ‘slip rules’ as long as this happens within 56 days of the error and parties are put on notice
242. s30(1) ASBCPA 2014
243. The ordinary allocation rules for the youth court apply, with a presumption of trial in the youth court. See, for instance, ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020, ‘Youths: breaches of CBOs’
244. R v Charles (2009) EWCA Crim 1570
245. ‘Criminal Behaviour Orders’, CPS Legal Guidance for Crown Prosecutors, updated 13 May 2020, ‘Youths: breaches of CBOs’
246. Sir William MacPherson, ‘The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry’, February 1999, para 6.39, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf
247. ‘The Macpherson Report: Twenty-two years on: Third Report of Session 2021–22’, House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, HC 139, 30 July 2021, https://committees.parliament.uk/work/347/the-macpherson-report-twentyone-years-on/publications/
248. ‘The Macpherson Report: Twenty-two years on ‘ p13; source: Baroness Lawrence, Evidence to the Home Affairs Select Committee, 5 February 2019
249. ‘The Macpherson Report: Twenty-two years on ‘ p8
250. ‘The Macpherson Report: Twenty-two years on ‘ p124, para 415: ‘As part of its 2021 report, HMICFRS [HM Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire and Rescue Services] examined whether there was disproportionality in the use of force and concluded that despite limitations in the way police forces record “use of force”, and incomplete data (some forces are not recording the ethnicity of individuals subjected to force), “the data suggests a disproportionate use of force”.701 Based on 2019/20 data, it stated that Black people were about 5.7 times more likely to have force used on them than White people’
251.a. b. c. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, Figure 7.6, https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
252. Abdi v R [2022] EWCA Crim 315
253. K Samuelson, ‘Rap on Trial: the battle to keep lyrics out of courtrooms’, The Week, 25 January 2022, www.theweek.co.uk/news/ crime/955521/rap-on-trial-battle-stop-lyrics-courtrooms
254. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, Youth Justice Board (YJB) and Ministry of Justice (MOJ), 27 January 2022, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_ Statistics_2020-21.pdf
255. ‘More than half of UK’s black children live in poverty, analysis shows’, The Guardian, 2 January 2022, www.theguardian.com/world/2022/ jan/02/more-than-half-of-uks-black-children-live-in-poverty-analysis-shows
256. ‘Exclusion rates five times higher for black Caribbean pupils in parts of England’, The Guardian, 24 March 2021, www.theguardian.com/ education/2021/mar/24/exclusion-rates-black-caribbean-pupils-england
257. ‘“School-to-prison pipeline”’: youth justice services failing black boys’, The Guardian, 21 October 2021, www.theguardian.com/ society/2021/oct/21/youth-justice-services-still-failing-black-and-mixed-heritage-boys-finds-report
258. See by analogy, the Associated Press style guide on capitalising ‘Black’ – namely emphasising that ‘lowercase black is a color, not a person’: https://apnews.com/article/archive-race-and-ethnicity-9105661462
259. Sir William MacPherson, ‘The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry’, February 1999, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/ system/uploads/attachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf
260. ‘Oral statement to Parliament: Stop and search: Comprehensive package of reform for police stop and search powers’, Home Office and Theresa May, 30 April 2014, www.gov.uk/government/speeches/stop-and-search-comprehensive-package-of-reform-for-police-stopand- search-powers
261. ‘The Lammy Review: An independent review into the treatment of, and outcomes for, Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic individuals in the Criminal Justice System’, 2017, www.gov.uk/government/publications/lammy-review-final-report
262. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, para 3, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
263. ‘Ethnic disproportionality in remand and sentencing in the youth justice system: Analysis of administrative data’, YJB, 2021, para 44, p16
264. ‘Ethnic disproportionality in remand and sentencing in the youth justice system: Analysis of administrative data’, YJB, 2021, p52, https:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/952483/Ethnic_disproportionality_in_ remand_and_sentencing_in_the_youth_justice_system.pdf
265. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, para 7.9, p45, https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
266. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, Figure 7.6, p36, https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
267.a. b. V Weisz, T Wingrove and A Faith-Slaker, ‘Children and procedural justice’, Court Review, Vol 44, p38, www.proceduralfairness.org/__ data/assets/pdf_file/0019/5770/weisz.pdf
268. V Weisz, T Wingrove and A Faith-Slaker, ‘Children and procedural justice’, Court Review, Vol 44, p41, www.proceduralfairness.org/__data/ assets/pdf_file/0019/5770/weisz.pdf
269.a. b. D Robson, ‘What unconscious bias training gets wrong ... and how to fix it’, The Guardian, 25 April 2021, www.theguardian.com/ science/2021/apr/25/what-unconscious-bias-training-gets-wrong-and-how-to-fix-it?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other
270. See, for instance, YJB research relating to the racial bias in Asset risk assessment: ‘Ethnic disproportionality in remand and sentencing in the youth justice system: Analysis of administrative data’, 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/952483/Ethnic_disproportionality_in_remand_and_sentencing_in_the_youth_justice_system.pdf. See also Dr Jahnine Davis’ research on adultification: J Davis and N Marsh, ‘Boys to men: the cost of “adultification” in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, Critical and Radical Social Work, (2020) vol 8, no 2, 255–259, DOI: 10.1332/204986020X15945756023543
271. For more information, see W McMahon and R Roberts, ‘Truth and lies about “race” and “crime”’, CJM 83: Myths and criminal justice, www.crimeandjustice.org.uk/publications/cjm/article/truth-and-lies-about-race-and-crime
272. C Wells, ‘Microaggressions: What They Are and Why They Matter’, 24 Texas Hispanic Journal of Law and Policy, 2017, https://racism.org/ component/mailto/?tmpl=component&template=cloudbase3&link=f92f60ff08bbd2f6cf400733679affa06183258d
273. Dr Chester Pierce, ’Offensive Mechanisms’, in The Black Seventies, ed Floyd B Barbour (Boston: P Sargent, 1970), 265–266
274. Racial Justice for Youth: A Toolkit for Defenders, ‘Confronting Bias’, Georgetown Juvenile Justice Clinic & Initiative and the Gault Center: Defenders of Youth Rights, 2021/22, www.defendracialjustice.org/confronting-bias/
275.a. b. ‘Youth Justice Board for England and Wales: Strategic plan 2019–2022’, 24 May 2019, www.gov.uk/government/publications/youthjustice- board-for-england-and-wales-strategic-plan-2019-22
276. s37 Crime and Disorder Act 1998
277. s44 Children and Young Persons Act 1933
278. s11(2)(a) Children Act 2004
279. Art 3(1) UN Convention on the Rights of the Child; see also the European Court of Human Rights decision in Neulinger and Shuruk v Switzerland, App No 41615/07, [2010] ECHR 1053, (2010) 28 BHRC 706 which highlights that ‘in all decisions concerning children, their best interests must be paramount’ (at para 135)
280. See J Davis and N Marsh, ‘Boys to men: the cost of ‘adultification’ in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, Critical and Radical Social Work, Vol 8, No 2, August 2020, pp255–259(5)
281. PA Goff, M Jackson, B Di Leone, C Culotta and N Ditomasso, ‘The essence of innocence: consequences of dehumanizing Black children’, (2014) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4): 526–545; and R Epstein, J Blake and T Gonzalez, ‘Girlhood interrupted: the erasure of Black girls’ childhood’, (2017) The Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality, doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3000695
282. PA Goff, M Jackson, B Di Leone, C Culotta. and N Ditomasso, ‘The essence of innocence: consequences of dehumanizing Black children’ (2014) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4): 526–545; J Davis and N Marsh, ‘Boys to men: the cost of “adultification” in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, (2020) Critical and Radical Social Work, vol 8, no 2, 255–259, DOI: 10.1332/204986020X159457560 23543
283.a. b. J Davis and N Marsh, ‘Boys to men: the cost of “adultification” in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, (2020) Critical and Radical Social Work, vol 8, no 2, 255–259, DOI: 10.1332/204986020X15945756023543
284. ‘Waltham Forest Safeguarding Children Board: Serious Case Review – Child C, a 14 year old boy’, May 2020, www.walthamforest.gov.uk/ sites/default/files/2021-11/WFSCB%20-%20SCR%20Child%20C%20May%20final_.pdf
285. K Welch, ‘Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling’, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice (2007) 23(3): 276–88. doi: 10.1177/1043986207306870; J Davis and N Marsh (2020) ‘Boys to men: the cost of “adultification” in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, Critical and Radical Social Work, (2020) vol 8, no 2, 255–259, DOI: 10.1332/204986020X15945756023543
286. J Davis and N Marsh (2020) ‘Boys to men: the cost of “adultification” in safeguarding responses to Black boys’, Critical and Radical Social Work (2020), vol 8, no 2, 255–259, DOI: 10.1332/204986020X15945756023543
287. Oxford Reference: www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100412531
288.a. b. T Kraemer and E Patten, ‘Establishing a trauma-informed lawyer-client relationship (part one)’, ABA Child Law Practice, vol 33 no 10, October 2014, p199, www.lsc-sf.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Article_Establishing-a-Trauma-Informed-Lawyer-Client-Relationship.pdf
289. ‘Trauma-informed lawyering’, April 2021, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/trauma-informed-lawyering
290. Definition cited by Professor Kristin Henning, Gault Center: Defenders of Youth Rights (formerly the National Juvenile Defender Centre, Georgetown University)
291. D English et al, ‘Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black US American adolescents’, 66 J Applied Dev Psychol (2020)
292. ‘Young Muslims on trial: A scoping study on the impact of Islamophobia on criminal justice decision-making’, T2A Alliance (Transition to Adulthood) and Maslaha, March 2016, https://t2a.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Young_Muslims_on_Trial.pdf
293. ‘Prevent scheme “built on Islamophobia and should be axed”’, BBC, 29 August 2017, www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-41082086
294. ‘Press Release: Racism, Islamophobia and the British police’, Islamic Human Rights Commission, 22 October 2003, www.ihrc.org.uk/ press-releases/press-release-racism-islamophobia-and-the-british-police/
295. TRT World, ‘Manchester police face backlash from ‘Islamophobic’ exercise’, 11 May 2016, www.trtworld.com/europe/manchester-policeface- backlash-of-islamophobic-exercise-104051
296. Arab News, ‘UK cop avoids being fired over Islamophobia’, 31 May 2021, www.arabnews.com/node/1867886/world
297. R Carter, ‘New statistics confirm what we already knew – Islamophobia is thriving in all parts of British society’, Independent, 16 July 2019, www.independent.co.uk/voices/islamophobia-new-statistics-hope-hate-british-muslims-society-a9006516.html
298. Sir William MacPherson, ‘The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry’, February 1999, para 46.1, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf
299. 2 M Frazer-Carroll, ‘A brief history of police brutality in the UK’, Huck Magazine, 4 June 2020, https://www.huckmag.com/perspectives/ opinion-perspectives/a-brief-history-of-police-brutality-in-the-uk/
300. ‘National strategy for police custody’, NPCC, p7
301. www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprisons/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2019/01/Metropolitan-Police-Service-Web-2018.pdf
302. ‘Local child safeguarding practice review: Child Q’, City & Hackney Safeguarding Children Partnership (CHSCP), March 2022, https:// chscp.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Child-Q-PUBLISHED-14-March-22.pdf
303. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: Children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, 2021, p77, at para 4.10 https://files.justice.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
304. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, Figure 1.5, https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
305. December 2021, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/police-bail-and-remand-children
306. ‘Racial disproportionality, children and young people in custody (part 1): Entry into the youth justice system’, House of Commons, Justice Committee, 12 November 2020, para 75, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5801/cmselect/cmjust/306/30602.htm
307.a. b. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, para 2.2, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
308. Cited in ‘Disparities in youth diversion – an evidence review’, Centre for Justice Innovation, January 2021, taken from: S Steen, CEW Bond, GS Bridges, and CE Kubrin,. ‘Explaining assessments of future risk. race and attributions of juvenile offenders in presentencing reports’, in ‘Our children, their children: confronting racial and ethnic differences in American juvenile justice’, 245–269, edited by F Darnell, DF Hawkins and K Kempf-Leonard, University of Chicago Press
309. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, February 2021, para 3.29, https://files.justice.org.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
310. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, February 2021, paras 3.27 and 3.29, https://files.justice. org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
311. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, February 2021, p62, para 3.31, https://files.justice.org. uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
312.a. b. A Ofori, B Jolaoso, C Robin-D’Cruz, S Whitehead, ‘Equal diversion? Racial disproportionality in youth diversion’, Centre for Justice Innovation, March 2021, p12, https://justiceinnovation.org/publications/equal-diversion-racial-disproportionality-youth-diversion
313. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, 2021, pp45-46, para 2.62, https://files.justice.org.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf.
314. ‘Prosecution and case management: Justice outcomes: Possible justice outcomes following investigation’, College of Policing Authorised Professional Practice (APP), published 23 October 2013, last modified 24 March 2022, www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/prosecutionand-case-management/justice-outcomes/. For a conditional caution, the child must not deny the offence rather than make an admission – see ‘Conditional cautioning: youths – Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) guidance’, Crown Prosecution Service, updated 5 November 2019, para 9.2, https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/conditional-cautioning-youths-dpp-guidance
315. ‘Youth out-of-court disposals: guide for police and youth offending services’, MOJ and YJB, 2013, p13, para 4.7, https://assets.publishing. service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/438139/out-court-disposal-guide.pdf (the guidance is currently under review and a new version is expected)
316. ‘Youth out-of-court disposals: guide for police and youth offending services’, MOJ and YJB, 2013, p14, para 4.11, https://assets. publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/438139/out-court-disposal-guide.pdf (the guidance is currently under review and a new version is expected)
317. ‘ACPO youth offender case disposal gravity factor matrix’, ACPO, March 2013, para 15.0, available at: https://yjlc.uk/resources/legalterms-z/acpo-gravity-matrix
318.a. b. ‘Legal guidance: Youth offenders’, CPS, updated 28 April 2020, www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/youth-offenders
319. ‘Youth out-of-court disposals: guide for police and youth offending services’, MOJ and YJB, 2013, https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/438139/out-court-disposal-guide.pdf (the guidance is currently under review and a new version is expected)
320. May 2019, www.gov.uk/government/publications/how-to-use-out-of-court-disposals/how-to-use-out-of-court-disposals-section-1- case-management-guidance
321. ‘DBS filtering guide’, Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) and MOJ, updated 19 November 2020, www.gov.uk/government/publications/ dbs-filtering-guidance/dbs-filtering-guide
322. R (AR) v Chief Constable of GMP [2018] UKSC 47
323. See ‘Unlock: For people with criminal records’, https://unlock.org.uk/ for detailed guidance which can be useful to share with clients
324. ‘ACPO youth offender case disposal gravity factor matrix’ available at: https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-terms-z/acpo-gravity-matrix
325. See s37 Crime and Disorder Act 1998; s11 Children Act 2004; arts 3(1) and 40(3) United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child
326. Department for Education, Home Office and MOJ, November 2018, www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-protocol-onreducing-criminalisation-of-looked-after-children
327. This is currently being drafted
328. November 2021, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/child-criminal-exploitation
329.a. b. ‘County lines exploitation: practice guidance for youth offending teams and frontline practitioners’, MOJ, published 15 October 2019, updated 6 January 2020, p5, www.gov.uk/government/publications/county-lines-exploitation
330. ‘Criminal exploitation of children and vulnerable adults: county lines’, Home Office, published 11 July 2017, updated 7 February 2020, www.gov.uk/government/publications/criminal-exploitation-of-children-and-vulnerable-adults-county-lines
331. ‘Covid-19, vulnerability and the safeguarding of criminally exploited children’, Dr G Robinson, Dr B Brewster, V Brotherton, Prof Sir B Silverman from the University of Nottingham’s Rights Lab, and Prof D Walsh from the De Montfort University School of Law, June 2021. The ongoing project, ‘Covid-19 and child criminal exploitation: closing urgent knowledge and data gaps on the implications of pandemic for county lines’, is funded by UK Research and Innovation
332. ‘National Referral Mechanism: guidance for child first responders’, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/233310/NRM_child_first_responders_guidance.pdf
333. ‘Human Trafficking Indictors’, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/ HT_indicators_E_LOWRES.pdf and https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/child-criminal-exploitation
334.a. b. R v Brecani [2021] EWCA Crim 731 at para 9
335. VCL and AN v UK, App Nos 77587/12 and 74603/12
336. Consider the YLJC guide, ‘Instructing an expert: a toolkit for lawyers and expert witnesses in criminal cases involving children’, https:// yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/instructing-expert-toolkit-lawyers-and-expert-witnesses
337. See the CPS guidance ‘Modern Slavery, Human Trafficking and Smuggling’, 30 April 2020, www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/modernslavery-human-trafficking-and-smuggling
338. R v Brecani [2021] EWCA Crim 731
339. R v D [2018] EWCA Crim 2995
340. At para 9
341. At para 160
342. At para 162
343. April 2021, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/trauma-informed-lawyering
344. March 2021, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-guides-and-toolkits/turning-18
345. R v AAD, AAH and AAI [2022] EWCA Crim 106
346. F Demie, ‘The experience of Black Caribbean pupils in school exclusion in England’, Educational Review, vol 73, 2021, issue 1, 24 April 2019
347.a. b. ‘Annual Report 2017–18’, HM Chief Inspector of Prisons for England and Wales, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/761589/hmi-prisons-annual-report-2017-18-revised-web.pdf
348. 'Instructing an expert: a toolkit for lawyers and expert witnesses in criminal cases involving children’, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legalguides-and-toolkits/instructing-expert-toolkit-lawyers-and-expert-witnesses
349. The parties are under a duty to alert the court to any ‘potential impediment to the defendant’s effective participation in the trial’: Criminal Procedure Rules (CrimPR) 3.3(2)(f), inserted by Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Rules 2021 SI 2021/40
350. 2021, www.judiciary.uk/announcements/equal-treatment-bench-book-new-edition/; see also the Youth Court Bench Book, June 2020, www.judiciary.uk/publications/youth-court-bench-book-and-pronouncement-cards/
351. ETBB, Chapter 4, p133, para 116
352. R (TP) v West London Youth Court [2005] EWHC 2583 (Admin) at para 36
353. Criminal Practice Directions – Division I: General Matters – 3G Vulnerable defendants, www.gov.uk/guidance/rules-and-practicedirections-2020
354. R (C) v Sevenoaks Youth Court [2009] EWHC 3088 (Admin); R (D) v Camberwell Youth Court [2005] UKLH 4
355. s44(1) Children and Young Persons Act 1933
356. ‘Standards for children in the youth justice system 2019’, YJB and MOJ, February 2019, www.gov.uk/government/publications/nationalstandards-for-youth-justice-services
357. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, Figure 7.7, p41, https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
358. ‘Ethnic disproportionality in remand and sentencing in the youth justice system’, YJB, 21 January 2021, p9, para 17, www.gov.uk/ government/publications/ethnic-disproportionality-in-remand-and-sentencing-in-the-youth-justice-system
359. ‘Youth Justice Statistics, 2020/21, England and Wales’, YJB and MOJ, 27 January 2022, para 1, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1054236/Youth_Justice_Statistics_2020-21.pdf
360. ‘A thematic inspection of the experiences of black and mixed heritage boys in the youth justice system’, HMIP, 21 October 2021, www. justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprobation/inspections/black-and-mixed-heritage-boys/
361. See, for example, T Almond, ‘Asset: An assessment tool that safeguards or stigmatizes young offenders?’, Probation Journal, vol 59(2), June 2012, p142
362. ‘Youth Justice Statistics: 2019 to 2020’, YJB and MOJ, 2021, www.gov.uk/government/statistics/youth-justice-statistics-2019-to-2020; and ‘Ethnic disproportionality in remand and sentencing in the youth justice system: analysis of administrative data’, YJB, 2021
363. See definition in Part 1 of this series
364. ‘Sentencing children and young people: Overarching principles and offence specific guidelines for sexual offences and robbery – Definitive Guideline’, Sentencing Council, 2017, www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/publications/item/sentencing-children-and-youngpeople-definitive-guideline/
365. Para 1.18
366. ‘Overarching principles: sentencing offenders with mental disorders, developmental disorders, or neurological impairments’, Sentencing Council, 2020, para 5, www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/publications/item/overarching-principles-sentencing-offenders-with-mentaldisorders-developmental-disorders-or-neurological-impairments-final-resource-assessment/
367. ‘Supplying or offering to supply a controlled drug/ possession of a controlled drug with intent to supply it to another’, Sentencing Council, 1 April 2021, www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/offences/magistrates-court/item/supplying-or-offering-to-supply-a-controlled-drugpossession-of-a-controlled-drug-with-intent-to-supply-it-to-another/
368. Sentencing Council, ‘Ethnicity data: what we have and how we use it in developing guidelines’, 24 June 2021, www.sentencingcouncil. org.uk/news/item/ethnicity-data-what-we-have-and-how-we-use-it-in-developing-guidelines/, referencing Sentencing Council, ‘Investigating the association between an offender’s sex and ethnicity and the sentence imposed at the Crown Court for drug offences’, 15 January 2020, www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/publications/item/investigating-the-association-between-an-offenders-sex-andethnicity-and-the-sentence-imposed-at-the-crown-court-for-drug-offences/
369. Sentencing Council, published 9 December 2020 and coming into force 1 January 2021 www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/sentencing-andthe-council/about-sentencing-guidelines/about-published-guidelines/firearms-offences/
370. YJLC, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legal-updates/new-sentencing-guidelines-firearms-offences-published
371. 2021, www.judiciary.uk/announcements/equal-treatment-bench-book-new-edition/; see also the Youth Court Bench Book, June 2020, www.judiciary.uk/publications/youth-court-bench-book-and-pronouncement-cards/
372. Paras 185–201
373. Paras 202–203
374. Sentencing Council, para 1.2, www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/overarching-guides/magistrates-court/item/sentencing-children-andyoung-people/#Section%20one:%20General%20approach
375. Professor K Hollingsworth (Newcastle University) ‘Sentencing remarks for children: a new approach’, Newcastle Law School Research Briefing No 14; and ‘”This is a case about you and your future”: Towards judgments for children’ (2020) 83(5) Modern Law Review 1030–1058
376. See in Part 1 of this series
377. Article 6(1), European Convention on Human Rights; General Comment No 24 (2019) ‘Children’s Rights in the Child Justice System’ (replacing General Comment No 10 (2007); ‘Children’s Rights in Juvenile Justice’ para 57; and General Comment No 12 (2009) ‘The right of the child to be heard’, para 28; V v UK; T v UK (1999) 30 EHRR 121; Taxquet v Belgium (Grand Chamber) (2012) 54 EHRR 26; and Seryavin and others v Ukraine, App No 4909/04, [2011] ECHR 255, which required not only that reasons be given but that they be given clearly
378. Magistrates’ Courts (Children and Young Persons) Rules 1992 SI 1992/2071 rule 6(1) and (2) (Part II, applies to criminal proceedings); Youth Court Bench Book, June 2020, www.judiciary.uk/publications/youth-court-bench-book-and-pronouncement-cards/; ‘Guidelines of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on child-friendly justice’, Council of Europe, 2010. For a brief discussion of how guidance on child-friendly justice has evolved, see H Stalford, L Cairns and J Marshall, ‘Achieving child friendly justice through child friendly methods: let’s start with the right to information’ (2017) 5 Social Inclusion 207, 207–208
379. See in Part 1 of this series
380. 7 H Stalford, K Hollingsworth, ‘“This case is about you and your future”: towards judgments for children’, Modern Law Review, vol 83, issue 5,14 May 2020, pp1030–1058
381. H Stalford, K Hollingsworth, ‘“This case is about you and your future”: towards judgments for children’, Modern Law Review, vol 83, issue 5,14 May 2020, pp1030–1058
382. Re A (letter to a young peson) [2017] EWFC 48
383. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, 25 February 2021, https://files.justice.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
384. See, for instance, D Conn, ‘One death, 11 jailed teenagers: was a Moss Side murder trial racist?’, The Observer, 5 June 2021, www. theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/05/one-death-11-jailed-teenagers-was-a-moss-side-trial-racist?
385. T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460, citing research in L Fatsis, ‘Policing the beats: the criminalization of UK drill and grime music by the London Metropolitan Police’ (2019) 67 Sociological Review 1300, 1305–1308; A Owusu-Bempah, ‘Part of art or part of life? Rap lyrics in criminal trials’, London School of Economics, 27 August 2020
386. P Williams and B Clarke, ‘Dangerous associations: Joint enterprise, gangs and racism: An analysis of the process of criminalisation of Black, Asian and minority ethnic individuals’, (2016) Centre for Crime and Justice Studies
387. See ‘Defending Digga D: criminal behaviour orders, rehabilitation and cultural censorship’, Bindmans LLP, 11 December 2020, www. bindmans.com/insight/blog/defending-digga-d-criminal-behaviour-orders-rehabilitation-and-cultural-censorship
388. P Williams and B Clarke, ‘Dangerous associations: joint enterprise, gangs and racism: an analysis of the process of criminalisation of Black, Asian and minority ethnic individuals’ (2016) Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. See also: S Swann, ‘Drill and rap music on trial’, BBC News, 13 January 2021, www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-55617706; see also K Rymajdo, ‘Drill lyrics are being used against young Black men in court’, Vice, 24 August 2020, www.vice.com/en/article/4ayp5d/drill-lyrics-used-against-young-Black-men-court-uk%20
389. ‘Trapped in the matrix: secrecy, stigma, and bias in the Met’s gangs database’, Amnesty International, May 2018, www.amnesty.org.uk/ files/2018-05/Inside%20the%20matrix.pdf?VersionId=VtHJ.NawP4favLWa0mjswpaSStRrPneB
390. K Henning, ‘The rage of innocence: how America criminalizes Black youth’, Pantheon, September 2021
391. For commentary, see: quoted in: P Williams and B Clark, ‘Dangerous associations: joint enterprise, gangs and racism: an analysis of the process of criminalisation of Black, Asian and minority ethnic individuals’, (2016) Centre for Crime and Justice Studies
392. The problem is also prevalent in the US. For a more thorough exposition of the problems posed by allegations of gang affiliation, see John M Hagedorn’s ‘Gangs on trial: challenging stereotypes and demonization in the courts’, Temple University Press, January 2022. This text considers how to combat racial stereotypes in trials and sentencing hearings where gang membership is relied upon, and applies concepts from social psychology to understand injustice, ultimately arguing that dehumanisation is the psychological foundation of mass incarceration
393. See, for example, K Rymajdo, ‘Drill lyrics are being used against young Black men in court’, Vice, 24 August 2020, www.vice.com/en/ article/4ayp5d/drill-lyrics-used-against-young-Black-men-court-uk%20
394. ‘Part of art or part of life? Rap lyrics in criminal trials’, LSE British Politics and Policy, 27 August 27 2020
395. K Monteith QC, ‘Rap and the State’s double whammy: lack of expert challenge to racist stereotyping’, Garden Court Chambers, 10 May 2021, www.gardencourtchambers.co.uk/news/rap-and-the-states-double-whammy-lack-of-expert-challenge-to-racist-stereotyping
396. [2014] EWCA Crim 2412
397. J Ilan, ‘Digital street culture decoded: why criminalizing drill music is street illiterate and counterproductive’, (2020) The British Journal of Criminology, 60(4), pp994–1013, doi: 10.1093/bjc/azz086
398.a. b. c. d. T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460
399. The Court of Appeal has recommended that such a direction should be given: R v Solomon [2019] EWCA Crim 1356
400. R v Soloman [2019] EWCA Crim 1356 at para 12
401. S Paul, ‘Tackling racial injustice: children and the youth justice system’, JUSTICE, 25 February 2021, para 2.51, https://files.justice.org.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2021/02/23104938/JUSTICE-Tackling-Racial-Injustice-Children-and-the-Youth-Justice-System.pdf
402. In T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460. Academic discourse in this area has been led by Dr T Ward and Dr S Fouladvand and this section of our guidance draws heavily on their critique
403. The principal argument advanced in T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460
404. Professor Tony Ward and Dr Shahrzad Fouladvand, April 2021, cited in Keir Monteith QC, ‘Rap and the State’s double whammy: Lack of expert challenge to racist stereotyping’, Garden Court Chambers, 10 May 2021, www.gardencourtchambers.co.uk/news/rap-and-thestates-double-whammy-lack-of-expert-challenge-to-racist-stereotyping
405.a. b. Available at: www.gov.uk/guidance/rules-and-practice-directions-2020
406. ‘Instructing an expert a toolkit for lawyers and expert witnesses in criminal cases involving children’, https://yjlc.uk/resources/legalguides-and-toolkits/instructing-expert-toolkit-lawyers-and-expert-witnesses
407. The central thesis of T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460
408. Byrne v R [2021] EWCA Crim 107 at para 99
409. Myrers v The Queen (Bermuda) [2015] UKPC 40, [2016] AC 314; and R v Hodges [2003] EWCA Crim 290, [2003] 2 CrAppR 15. As agued in T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460
410. Myers v The Queen (Bermuda) [2015] UKPC 40, [2016] AC 314 at para 58
411. Myers v The Queen (Bermuda) [2015] UKPC 40, [2016] AC 314 at para 60
412. Myers v The Queen (Bermuda) [2015] UKPC 40, [2016] AC 314; and Hodges [2003] EWCA Crim 290, [2003] 2 CrAppR 15
413. See R v O [2010] EWCA Crim 2985
414. R v O [2010] EWCA Crim 2985
415. [2021] EWCA Crim 673
416. [2021] EWCA Crim 673 at para 33
417. This point is advanced in T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460. The concepts described in this article derive from research presented in the following articles: H Collins and M Evans, ‘Rethinking expertise’, University of Chicago Press, 2007, p23; H Collins, ‘Language and practice’ (2011) 41 Social Studies of Science 271, 282; J Ilan, ‘Digital street culture decoded: why criminalizing drill music is illiterate and counterproductive’, (2020) 60 Brit J Criminol 994; Collins and Evans, ‘Rethinking expertise’ (2007), pp22–23; E Nielson and A Dennis, ‘Rap on trial: race, lyrics, and guilt in America’, The New Press, 2019, pp131–137
418.a. b. c. As argued in T Ward and S Fouladvand, ‘Bodies of knowledge and robes of expertise: expert evidence about drugs, gangs and human trafficking’, [2021] (6) CrimLR 442–460
419. [2021] EWCA Crim 731
420. [2021] EWCA Crim 731 at para 54
421. Awoyemi v R [2016] EWCA Crim 668
422. Awoyemi v R [2016] EWCA Crim 668 para 9
423.a. b. Ibid
424. ‘Terms and Conditions: A UK Drill Story’, GRM Daily, www.youtube.com/watch?v=kno5T4y5SBY
425. B Beaumont-Thomas, ‘Stars including Jay-Z call for the end to use of rap lyrics as criminal evidence’, The Guardian, 19 January 2022, www.theguardian.com/music/2022/jan/19/stars-including-jay-z-call-for-end-to-use-of-rap-lyrics-as-criminal-evidence
426. ‘Decision making in “gang” related offences’, CPS, updated 4 November 2021, www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/gang-related-offencesdecision-making
427. ‘CPS to review guidance on using drill music as evidence’, BBC News, 24 January 2022, www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-englandnottinghamshire-60070345
428. CrimPR 19.2(1)(a)
429. CrimPR 19.2(3)(a)–(d)
430. CrimPR 19.3(3)(c)
431. CrimPR 19.3(3)(d)
432. CrimPR 19.4(a)
433. CrimPR 19.4(b)
434. CrimPR 19.4(c)
435.a. b. Byrne v R [2021] EWCA Crim 107 at para 100
436.a. b. CrimPR 19.4(i)
437.a. b. CrimPR 19.4(j)
438.a. b. CrimPR 19.4(k)
439. CrimPR 19.4(d)
440. CrimPR 19.4(e)
441. CrimPR 19.4(f)
442. CrimPR 19.4(g)
443. CrimPR 19.4(h)
444. CrimPD V 19A.5
445. CrimPD V 19A.6